Validación de la Escala Corta de Empatía (ece) para población mexicana / Validation of the Short Empathy Scale (ses) for the Mexican Population / Validação da Escala Curta de Empatia (ece) para a população mexicana

Díaz-Loving et al. (1986) diseñaron la Escala Multi- dimensional de Empatía (EASE), un instrumento culturalmente válido para población mexicana inspirado en la estructura conceptual del Índice de Reactividad Interpersonal (IRI) (Davis, 1980). En esta investigación presentamos evidencias de validez y confiabilidad de la Escala Corta de Empatía (ECE), una versión breve de la EASE aplicada a 674 participantes (50.8 % mujeres, 49.2 % hombres) mexicanos (M = 22.8 años, de = 9.2), además del IRI, preguntas de conductas prosociales y el Inventario de Personalidad de diez ítems como criterios externos de validez. El análisis factorial exploratorio mostró tres factores ­malestar personal, toma de perspectiva y compasión­ con niveles de confiabilidad adecuados. El análisis factorial confirmatorio verificó la estructura con indicadores de bondad de ajuste aceptables, obteniendo evidencias de equivalencia estructural para mujeres y hombres. Las relaciones de los tres factores de ECE con prosocialidad, personalidad y sexo proporcionan criterios de validez externa del instrumento.

The Multidimensional Empathy Scale (EASE), a culturally valid instrument for the Mexican population inspired by the conceptual structure of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), from 1980, was designed in 1986. The article presents evidence of the validity and reliability of the short empathy scale (ECE), a short version of the EASE, applied to 674 Mexican partici- pants (50.8 % women, 49.2 % men; M = 22.8 years, sd = 9.2). They also answered questions on prosocial behaviors and the 10-item Personality Inventory as an external validity criterion. The exploratory factor analysis showed three factors (personal discomfort, perspective-taking, and compassion) with adequate levels of reliability. The confirmatory factor analysis verified the structure with acceptable goodness-of-fit indicators, obtaining evidence of structural equivalence for women and men. The relationships of the three ECE factors with prosociality, personality, and sex provide evidence of validity.

Diaz Loving et al. (1986) desenharam a Escala de Empatia Multidimensional (EASE), um instrumento cultu- ralmente válido para a população mexicana inspirado na estrutura conceitual do Índice de Reatividade Interpessoal (IRI) (Davis, 1980). Apresentamos evidências de validade e confiabilidade da escala curta de empatia (ECE), uma versão breve do EASE, aplicada a 674 participantes mexicanos (50.8 % mulheres, 49.2 % homens) (M = 22.8 anos, dP = 9.2). Além do IRI, rea- lizamos perguntas sobre comportamento pró-social e aplicamos o Inventário de Personalidade de 10 itens como critérios de validade externa. A análise fatorial exploratória mostrou três fatores (desconforto pessoal, tomada de perspectiva e compaixão) com níveis adequa- dos de confiabilidade. A análise fatorial confirmatória verificou a estrutura com indicadores de qualidade de ajuste aceitáveis, obtendo evidências de equivalência estrutural para mulheres e homens. As relações dos três fatores da ECE com pró-socialidade, personalidade e gênero fornecem critérios de validade externa para o instrumento.

Stigmatization towards healthcare personnel during the first COVID-19 wave in Central and Northern Mexico.

The evidence all over the world shows an alarming increase in the stigmatization of health personnel during the COVID-19 pandemic. We sought to explore possible psychological factors that help explain the disposition to stigmatize health personnel in the central and northern regions of Mexico. Two studies explore possible psychological factors to explain the disposition to stigmatize healthcare personnel (HP) in Mexico during the COVID-19 pandemic. In study one, 520 participants responded to three instruments that measure the disposition to stigmatize, the perceived contagion risk, and the positive beliefs towards HP. Results showed a generalized low disposition to stigmatization, where only a small percentage obtained high scores. A regression analysis identified that stigmatization towards HP can derive mainly from the perception of risk of contagion, although positive beliefs of HP decrease this disposition. The second study extends this finding by analyzing responses of 286 participants to seven instruments measuring factors hypothesized as predictors towards stigmatization: uncertainty generated by the pandemic, selfish strategies to face off the pandemic, social capital, trust in institutions, perceived vulnerability of contagion, perceived risk of contagion, and positive beliefs towards HP. A path analysis reveals that the main predictor of stigmatization is the perceived risk of contagion, increased by the strategy of selfishness, and the uncertainty generated by the pandemic. These results are discussed emphasizing the importance of cooperation and community ties to prevent the stigmatization of HP in the context of sanitary emergencies generated by contagious diseases.

Contextual violence and its link to social aggression: a study of community violence in Juárez.

The city of Juárez, Mexico has been immersed in an atmosphere of violence and danger for more than a decade. Due to this violence, residents of Juárez may be at risk of severe contextual victimization, which occurs when individuals are indirectly affected by the physical and socio-cultural conditions of their violent communities through second-hand information (e.g., witnessing or hearing about violent acts in their everyday life). The objective of this study was to explore the effects of contextual victimization on variables related to community violence such as aggression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and acceptance of violence. Data were collected from a sample of university students in Juárez (n = 298) using the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), the Acceptance of Violence Scale (AVS), Checklist for PTSD Traits scale, and the Contextual Victimization by Community Violence scale (CVCV). Participants' responses were analyzed in structural equation models (SEM) to uncover the latent variables behind each scale and test the hypothesized effects of CVCV on PTSD, AQ and AVS. Good validity indexes and internal consistency of all instruments were confirmed. SEM show significant positive effects of contextual violence on PTSD and PTSD on the disposition to aggression, but not on the acceptance of violence. Also, the variance explained of PTSD and AQ found in the sample of women (20% of PTSD and 23% of AQ) is almost twice than in men's sample (9% for PTSD and 14% for AQ).

Las creencias que justifican la corrupción disminuyen la disposición y el apoyo percibido para combatirla / Beliefs that justify corruption decrease willingness and perceived support to combat it

Resumen La participación cívica es fundamental para abstenerse y sancionar a quienes se benefician de la corrupción. Experimentos muestran que el castigo altruista (pagar para castigar a quienes no cooperan), mantiene cooperando a los transgresores, pero en la vida real se les sanciona poco, siendo necesario identificar los factores que disminuyen esa disposición. Se encuestaron 622 ciudadanos mexicanos, población general, para analizar los efectos de creencias que justifican la corrupción y el apoyo percibido sobre la disposición a actuar contra la corrupción sancionando y absteniéndose de ella. Un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales confirma efectos negativos de las creencias de justificación de la corrupción y positivos del apoyo percibido, además de un efecto negativo indirecto de las creencias de justificación de la corrupción a través de un efecto negativo sobre el apoyo percibido, explicando en conjunto el 47% de la varianza de la disposición a actuar contra la corrupción en un modelo que muestra indicadores que reflejan una adecuada bondad de ajuste.

Abstract Civic participation is essential to abstain and punish the corrupt people. Experimental studies that show altruistic punishment, paying for those who do not cooperate to be punished, keep offenders cooperating, but in real life they are little penalized, being necessary to identify the factors that diminish that disposition. 622 Mexican citizens were surveyed to analyze the effects of beliefs that justify corruption and perceived support on willingness to act against cor ruption by sanctioning and abstaining from it. A model of structural equations confirmed negative effects of corruption justification beliefs and positive perceived support effects, in addition to an indirect negative effect of corruption justification beliefs through a negative effect on perceived support, together explaining for 47% of the variance of the willingness to act against corruption in a model that shows indices of adequate goodness of fit.

Relación del Bienestar Subjetivo de los trabajadores con su Compromiso hacia la organización / The relationship of the Subjective Wellbeing of the Workers with their Commitment towards the Organization

Resumen El compromiso organizacional (CO) de los trabajadores es entendido como una actitud o estado de ánimo que deriva en comportamientos como la intención de permanecer en la organización, la identificación con sus valores y la percepción de tener una deuda moral con la misma por los beneficios recibidos. Estudios previos muestran que el CO impacta positivamente el bienestar subjetivo de los trabajadores (BS), entendido este último como la evaluación cognitiva y afectiva que hacen las personas de la satisfacción sobre su propia vida. Otros estudios afirman que es el BS el que predice el CO. El objetivo del presente estudio fue especificar la dirección de esta relación, para lo cual se aplicó el Instrumento de Compromiso Organizacional para evaluar el CO y el módulo básico del Bienestar Autorreportado (BIARE) para evaluar el BS, a 230 trabajadores de una organización educativa pública de nivel superior en México. Mediante modelos de ecuaciones estructurales se contrastaron las hipótesis de relaciones en uno y otro sentido entre ambas variables con una tercera hipótesis con relaciones recíprocas entre ambas. Se identificó como mejor modelo el que presenta relaciones recíprocas y positivas entre el CO y el BS (Chi2=21.16; gl=16; p=0.172; RMR=.043; GFI=.976; CFI=.991; RMSEA=0.03 [IC 90%= 0.00, 0.07]). Se concluye que un incremento en el CO genera un incremento en el BS de los trabajadores, y la relación positiva entre ambas variables es recíproca. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados para la relación de los trabajadores con su contexto laboral.

Abstract The organizational employee commitment conceptualizes the intention to remain in the work place, as the identification of corporative values and the moral sense of engagement due to the benefits received, under the name of organizational commitment (OC). Previous studies show that OC positively affects the subjective well-being of workers (SW), understood as the cognitive and affective assessment that people make of their own life satisfaction. Other studies state that the effect goes from SW to OC. This study aimed to specify the direction of this relationship, for this purpose OC and SW instruments were applied to 230 workers of a higher education public organization in Mexico. Using structural equation models, the hypothesis of relations in both directions between the two variables was contrasted with a third hypothesis of reciprocal relationships between both. The best model was identified as having positive and reciprocal relationships between CO and BS (Chi2 = 65,627, df = 18, p = 0.000, RMR = .074, RMSEA = .111 [CI 90%= .083, .141]; GFI = .931; CFI = .915). It is concluded that increases in OC strengthen SW, and positive relationship between both variables is reciprocal. The implications of the findings on workers´ relationships in the work place are discussed.

Estrategias para Defender la Creencia en el Mundo Justo ante la Privación Relativa / Strategies to Defend the Belief in a Just World in front of a Relative Deprivation State

Resumen: Necesitamos creer que nuestro mundo es justo, vivir eventos injustos amenaza esa creencia y genera emociones negativas identificadas como privación relativa (Lerner, 1980, Lerner, 2003). Estas emociones motivan a defender nuestra creencia en el mundo justo y se han identificado nueve estrategias para ello. Este proyecto pretende medir seis de ellas y analizar su función paliativa ante la privación relativa. Participaron 337 estudiantes universitarios. Leyeron una viñeta relatando una protesta estudiantil después de ser rechazados de la universidad y respondieron una medición de las emociones negativas que les generaba. El instrumento de creencia en el mundo justo muestra cinco dimensiones congruentes con las seis estrategias. Las correlaciones entre el número de veces que los participantes fueron rechazados de la universidad y las emociones negativas generadas por la viñeta son positivas pero bajas analizando la muestra total. Dividiendo la muestra en altos y bajos en estrategias, las correlaciones son mayores en el grupo de puntajes bajos y no hay correlaciones significativas en el grupo con puntajes altos, confirmando su función paliativa ante la privación relativa. Se discute la utilidad del modelo de estrategias con respecto al unidimensional y las implicaciones de su función paliativa en las relaciones entre grupos de diferente estatus.

Abstract: We need to believe that we live in a just world; to live unfair events threat that belief and generates negative emotions identified as relative deprivation (Lerner, 1980, Lerner, 2003). These emotions motívate us to defend our belief in just world and nine strategies have been identified for that. This project aims to measure six of them and analyze their palliative function in front of relative deprivation. 337 University students participated. They read a vignette telling about a student demonstration after being rejected from University; then answered a measure of negative emotions generated for the vignette. The instrument of belief in a just world shows five dimensions consistent with the six strategies. The correlations between times participants were rejected from university and negative emotions generated by the vignette are positive but low in the total sample. Dividing the sample into high and low on strategies, correlations are greater in the group of low scores and there are not significant correlations in the group with high scores, confirming its palliative function in front of relative deprivation. Utility of model strategies are discussed with respect to the unidimensional and the implications of its palliative function relationships between groups of different status.

Resultados incottrolables en la vida e impotenca aprendida generalizada: facillitadores para aceptar un estatus inferior / Uncontrllable reesults throughout life nd generalized learned helplesssness: enhancers for acceptance of a lower status

Se propone que altos niveles de exposición a resultados incontrolables generan un estado de impotencia aprendida generalizada, entendida como una disposición por evitar tareas difíciles, rendirse fácilmente ante situaciones adversas y aceptar rápidamente la superioridad de otros en situaciones de competencia. Esta condición es relevante en la conformación de jerarquías individuales y grupales. Un primer estudio analiza las respuestas de 375 participantes a mediciones de exposición a resultados incontrolables en la vida (estilos de crianza en la infancia y problemas a lo largo de la vida) y un estado de impotencia aprendida generalizado (estilos de afrontamiento, motivación por evitar el fracaso, creencia en el mundo justo y afrontamiento emocional a la incertidumbre). Se concluye que niveles altos de exposición a resultados incontrolables se asocian positivamente con los indicadores de impotencia aprendida generalizada. El segundo estudio realiza un procedimiento experimental donde 63 participantes juegan tres competencias manipuladas para hacerlos perder repetidamente frente al otro jugador. Al finalizar cada ronda adoptan el rol de receptores en el juego de ultimátum frente al jugador ganador, quien será el proponente. Se observa que los participantes con un perfil de alta exposición a resultados incontrolables asumen más pronto la superioridad del otro jugador y que esta percepción de pocas posibilidades de ganar se asocia con una mayor aceptación de la mínima oferta posible en el juego de ultimátum. Se discuten los resultados de ambos estudios en el marco de la teoría de la justificación del sistema social y las relaciones entre grupos de diferente estatus.

We propose that being exposed to high levels of uncontrollable results leads to a state of generalized learned helplessness, i.e. a disposition for avoiding difficult tasks, giving up easily while facing hard situations and easily accepting the superiority of others in scenarios of competition. This condition is relevant in individual and group status conformation. Two studies are presented; the first one analyzes responses of 375 participants to measures of exposition to uncontrollable results in history of life (rearing styles lived during childhood, and troubles experienced through life) and a state of generalized learned helplessness (coping styles, motivation to avoid failure, belief in a just world and emotional coping uncertainty. It is concluded that high levels of exposition to uncontrollable results are associated positively with the generalized learned helplessness indices. The second study uses an experimental procedure where 63 participants of the first study play three rounds of competitions fixed in order to make them lose all games. Finalizing each round, losers take on the receivers' role in the ultimatum game, while the winners are the proposers. It is observed that participants with high exposure to uncontrollable results sooner accept the superiority of the other player in the experimental task. This perception of few possibilities of winning is associated with better acceptance of the minimal offer in the ultimatum game. Results of both studies are discussed around the social system justification theory and relationships between groups and social categories with status differences.

Temor a la evaluación social negativa: validez de constructo y criterio del instrumento de medición / Fear of Negative Social Evaluation: Construct and Criterion Validity of the Measurement Instrument

El Instrumento de Temor a la Evaluación Social Negativa (ITESN) ha mostrado evidencias de validez y confiabilidad al utilizarse en muestras culturalmente distintas y al traducirse a diferentes idiomas (Duke et al., 2006; Gallego, 2010; Gallego et al., 2007; Weeks et al., 2005; Tavoli et al., 2009). Dada la relevancia del estudio de la ansiedad y fobia social, y con la intención de aportar herramientas para estudiar estas variables en muestras mexicanas, este proyecto presenta evidencias de validez y confiabilidad de una traducción al castellano del ITESN (Leary, 1983) en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios de Ciudad de México. Se realizaron análisis de discriminación de reactivos, factoriales exploratorios y factoriales confirmatorios mediante modelamiento de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados muestran una estructura unifactorial que agrupa ocho de los doce reactivos del instrumento original, explica el 53.8 % de la varianza total y muestra consistencia interna adecuada (α = 0.88). Se obtienen evidencias de validez de criterio del ITESN, así: a) se asocia positivamente con el Instrumento de Ansiedad Rasgo y b) mediante un procedimiento experimental, se observan asociaciones positivas entre el ITESN y mediciones de ansiedad estado y motivación de autopresentación ante la expectativa de conocer a otra persona. Se discute el funcionamiento de los cuatro reactivos redactados de forma negativa y la interpretación teórica de las relaciones que respaldan la validez de criterio.

The Brief fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE) has shown good validity and reliability properties in different cultural samples, as well as when it has been translated to other languages (Duke et al., 2006; Gallego, 2010; Gallego et al., 2007; Weeks et al., 2005; Tavoli et al., 2009). Given the relevance of the study of anxiety and social phobia and the need for research tools for Mexican samples, this study presents validity and reliability evidences for a translation to Spanish language of the BFNE (Leary, 1983) in a sample of undergraduate students from Mexico City. Psychometric tests included discrimination analysis for each item, principal component factorial analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis through structural equation modeling. Results show a one factor structure with just eight of the 12 original items. It explains 53.8% of total variance and has good reliability ( α = 0.88). In addition, evidence was found concerning criterion validity for the BFNE: a) It correlates positively with a Trait Anxiety Scale; and b) through an experimental procedure, positive correlations for the BFNE with a State Anxiety Scale and a Self-Presentation Motivation Scale when participants had the expectation of being introduced to another person. The discussion verses in relation to the performance of score reversed items and the theoretical meaning of items and to the observed relationships that support the criterion validity of this translation to Spanish language of the BFNE scale.